Time and Professionalism Essay Example for Free

Time and Professionalism Essay What is professionalism? There are many different forms of professionalism depending on whose opinion of professionalism it is. I will go with my opinion of professionalism. For the thirty years of my life I must say, I have learned a lot about my experiences in life. I’ve learned from myself, I have learned from my friends, and I have learned from mere strangers. I have seen people succeed in their goals. I have seen people fail in their goals. Failing doesn’t mean that you can’t try again. I believe we learn from our mistakes or if you possibly can, learn from others before you commit the same mistake. Well, I have come to a great conclusion. Professionalism plays a major, a very important role in succeeding in life despite of what goal you are trying to reach. To become a doctor there comes a need for a great amount of professionalism. To become a stockbroker, there is a need for people with nothing but a great mind and professionalism. Even to become a professional football player, despite of the great skills you may have to catch a 60 yard pass for a touchdown, there is still a great amount of professionalism expected from that professional wide receiver. Professionalism comes in many different aspects. The first most important aspect of being professional is the mere first image that you present yourself with. I say professionalism starts with your dress code and hygiene. The first detail you will put out to a person meeting you the first thing is that of how you are dressed. You should be dressed up for the occasion you are presenting yourself for. In an interview for example, a man should be dressed with a dark suit with a plain matching tie and decent shoes, also with his hair groomed. The second most important aspect of being professional is how you present yourself! Yes, you may be well groomed, with a perfect elegant suit but, if you do not have the perfect elegant professional attitude, the attire well, does not mean a thing. Professionalism plays a part in every characteristic of any person. So that being said, when being professional make sure you have the proper aura present. Make sure when you meet that important person that will decide your fate that you have a welcoming smile on your face. Make sure you present enough eye contact that you seem very much interested in what that person is trying to offer you and at the same time, not too much eye contact that it may come across to the other person that you are being maybe too cocky. Greet that person with a firm but not too firm handshake. Make sure that interviewer knows that you are comfortable and also make him or her feel just as comfortable. That is a big plus. Although I emphasized that the first impression you make to anyone will determine to the other person on what level your professionalism is to them. Do not forget that consistency is key to life. Yes, your first impression is big and will have a great impact on anyone. Anyone can have a great impression for one day. Can you do it on a daily basis? Can you maintain your characteristics of professionalism? Can you leave a great impression on people every day? This leads me to my third most important aspect of professionalism. Consistency! Although I put it at third most important does not mean that it is not as important as the first two. They play a role together as one. Consistency is big on every part of your personality, characteristic, and statistically. Are you prepared to be dressed professional at all times despite of whatever affair you may have? Are you willing to dress to the occasion? Are you prepared to have a great attitude and personality at all times, despite of what personal issues you may have? Can you keep that smile on your face and a positive attitude? Are you able to keep your good grades at all times? Are you able to have a 100% attendance? Can you show me 100% effort every day? Yes you have to have a great attitude and be dressed accordingly at all times but, can you do this 99. 9 percent of the time. This is what people look for in a professional. Someone they can rely on. There is one thing people tend to forget when talking about professionalism. Everyone has free personal time to enjoy their lively hood. There is no objecting to that. But do not forget that although you are on your own free personal time that there is not anyone watching you. As a famous musician once said, â€Å"the streets is watching†. There are always eyes on you if you are in a public place. You cannot everyday go to work and display a personality of professionalism, then go out to a club and be the worst most obnoxious person ever. Well you can. But I bet you didn’t see your assistant manager on the other side of that club watching you with astonishment! That one mistake may have cost you your whole chance of becoming the next person to being promoted in that company. That is why I say consistency is key. You cannot be professional in places where you think may only matter. Once you take a career that involves you being professional, you must always display that same amount of professionalism at all times. When you are at work, when you’re out at the park, when you’re at the movies, at a bar, anywhere you go you must be professional at all times. This does not mean you cannot have fun. You can have fun and be professional. Just as long as you present yourself in a respectable fashion. I personally will display all these aspects to my experiences in my future for my externship. I have learned a lot about myself and my experiences. I must admit. Most times I have not lived in a professional manner. I am now seeing things in different light. I am seeking the respect of a different group of people than in my past. I know that with all being said above. Without me living up to my knowledge and words I cannot succeed in my field of study so now it comes to that point that I will have to have a great output in my personality, my dress code, and I have to be consistent at all times. I have not been perfect, and I know no one is but I can only try! So after this report I will sit back and evaluate my little theory in professionalism and understand. I can’t only talk about it. I will be about it!!!!!

The mechanics of pipeline reeling

The mechanics of pipeline reeling An Insight Into The Mechanics Of Pipeline Reeling Abstract : Written here is a paper devoted to the mechanics of pipeline reeling. It contains an initial background into the various techniques used for rigid pipe lay, as well as a brief insight into the vessels used. The mechanics of pipeline reeling is discussed in detail, with the effect of pipeline ovalisation as well as a detailed understanding of the moment/curvature response and D/t ratios being defined. An insight into the material selection stage is given, before introducing one to the Recommend Practice for flaw control, involving Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) as well as specimen testing. Finally the paper will be rounded off with an insight into future concepts and studies being carried out by the industry. 1. Introduction The aim of this paper is to address the mechanics of the ridged pipe reeling process, as used frequently in the offshore oil and gas industry. The use of pipelines to transfer goods or product is highly proven, having been utilised since the late 20th century where the potential for oil was first realised. The relentless demand for oil meant that the need to look past existing onshore reserves was realised, with experimentation into the offshore environment inevitable. Today, pipelines are considered to be one of the most economical ways to transfer petroleum products such as oil, gas and water, in large quantities and over vast distances both reliably and safely. The steady growth of the oil and gas industry ensures that boundaries are constantly widening regarding pipeline installation, with ever-greater challenges of water depth and location becoming apparent. Pipelines are highly versatile in this respect, aided greatly by the many devised pipe lay methods. The J-lay, S-lay, and reel barge allow installation of rigid pipelines in a vast array of different water depths, at different lengths and speeds. The reeling method of installation differs from the others in that it puts the pipe under reverse plastic strain deformation, resulting in increased potential for enhancing induced defects. This lay technique will receive the majority of report analysis. Reel lay of rigid pipelines is now a well-proven method of installation in the offshore environment. The issue of fracture control due to plastic strain under installation is generally very well understood, indeed to such an extent that it is already well standardised for both actual pipeline design and the treatment of fracture control during plastic deformation. These standards take the form of the DNV RP-F108 and DNV OS-F101 respectively. Whilst fracture itself in todays offshore pipeline installations is now unheard of, ductile tearing does indeed occur, especially in laboratory and finite element testing. There also appears to be no recent published accounts of in-service leaks as a result of fabrication flaws to date. An attempt will be made to analyse and understand these relevant topics through the mechanics of pipe reeling. As a final aspect to the report, an insight into future aspects regarding rigid pipe reeling will be given. As an example, flaw tolerances due to the introduction of new pipeline materials and the ever-increasing exposure to H2S (sour service) environments are known to cause material stress cracking. 2. Pipeline Installation And Field Overview Offshore pipelines come in many different forms, dependant on their location in the field. The further downstream they are located, the larger their potential diameter as more flow streams connect. Pipeline design is dependant on the findings of 3 main stages of design, namely conceptual, preliminary and detail engineering. Within the first stage the concept is evaluated for feasibility and all restraints are identified. Preliminary engineering focuses on the defining of the project parameters and goes into enough detail to order the pipeline. The final detail engineering breaks everything down to the finest detail for submitting as work tender to the client. Improved welding techniques, survey capabilities, anchor handling techniques and procedures have all helped contribute towards more fast and efficient installations. The main loading considerations during pipeline installation are hydrostatic pressure, tension and bending. Three main lay methods exist for the installation of offshore pipelines. These are the J-lay and S-lay methods, as well as the technique of reeling. S-lay/Steep S-Lay The S-lay pipelay configuration offers the ability to install pipeline in typically shallow to intermediate water depths. It gets its name from the ‘S shape, formed from the overbend at the vessel stinger to the sagbend before contact with the ocean floor. This can be seen in the following Figure 1. S-lay of pipeline involves a normal or semi submersible vessel with an attached stinger. The stinger, used to minimise curvature and thus bending stress, supports the pipe as it is being offloaded, housing rollers to allow smooth movement of the pipe as it moves off. Tension is typically provided in the form of track loop deck tensioners, and varies depending on waterdepth, submerged pipeline weight, departure angle and sagbend and overbend curvatures respectively. A ‘firing line is installed on the vessel, containing the welding stations and relevant inspection stages for pipeline assembly. S-Lay is ultimately limited in deeper waters due to tension capacity and thus high overbend strains. As water depth increases the stinger length required becomes unfeasible, with more buoyancy being required to support the longer pipe length for the steeper lift off angle. J-lay The J-lay configuration allows for the installation of rigid pipeline in water depths of over 500ft. The term ‘J comes from the shape the pipeline takes up during the lay, as seen in Figure 2, below. The J-lay method works via the use of a barge with an installed tower, used to provide the required vertical drop and lower the product. Due to its configuration, the J-lay method requires no stinger and thus overbend stresses are eliminated and lay tension is reduced. The setup typically suffers from slower productivity than a comparable S-lay due to the vertical setup on the vessel. This can often result in the method being more cost prohibitive. It is however easier to utilise smaller vessels such as smaller barges and support vessels due to the relatively compact tower arrangement. Improved motion characteristics of the majority of J-lay vessels also results in lower dynamic pipe stresses. Reeling Reeling of pipeline is a configuration often utilised for offshore pipelines as well as catenary risers. It differs from the previous two installation methods in that the pipeline itself is first welded together and insulated as required, before being spooled onto a large drum on a reel lay vessel, all onshore. Upon loading the pipeline onto the reel, plastic strain deformation occurs. Once the lay vessel is in location, the pipe is then unreeled and straightened using a straight ramp, before being layed via either of the above J-lay and S-lay methods, typically dependant on conditions such as water depth and vessel configuration, namely horizontal or vertical reel. Throughout the lay, the pipe is tensioned and anchored to prevent sagging. Once complete a pullhead is attached to the tail end, before an abandonment cable guides it to the seabed, with an attached buoy used as a location marker. Reeling can typically be used for pipe diameters of up to 16†, as well as for pipe-in-pipe installations. As the pipeline is not being created during the lay, reeling offers the advantages of short installation times which can be particularly advantageous in short weather windows. Reeling of pipelines also tends to be more cost effective for this reason, offering the potential for better safety as well as a better quality product as a whole, that can be fabricated from exotic steels, coatings and internal liners as required. Weld joints can suffer from fewer flaws due to enhanced onshore inspection, often from Non Destructive Testing (NDT) via X-ray methods before the pipeline is reeled. A possible downside to the reel lay method is that the pipe radius tends to restrict the length of pipe layed, typically around 3 to 15km. Because of this, if the pipeline is made up of multiple segment lengths, connecting the set can prove challenging after their initial lay, and multiple segments being layed many miles offshore can result in undesired transit time. The pipeline also comes under plastic strain deformation, potentially resulting in ovalisation of the pipeline as well as affecting maintenance and monitoring of the product. Buckling can also occur, being time consuming to correct and due to the occurring deformation throughout the reel lay process, traditional coatings such as concrete cannot be used. Reeling Ships/Barges Typically, reel lay vessels often take the form of barges, as well as modified drillships and bulk carriers. Purpose built vessels also exist, examples being the 1978 CSO Apache pipelay vessel, seen below in Figure 3. Depending on the vessel configuration, reeling can be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal reeling is typically used with the S-lay configuration, with the vertical setup used mostly with J-lay. The CSO Apache vessel however, is an exception to this rule, being a vertical setup for use with S-lay. 3. Mechanics Of Pipe Reeling The pipe reeling method produces high levels of bending strain on the product, often just slightly below pipe shell buckling strain values. The primary concern is that because of this reverse plastic strain from reeling on and off, the pipeline is being ‘degraded, being downgraded below that of conventional J-lay and S-lay an so producing a greater failure risk. This, along with the aligning and straightening processes required, modifies the pipe material properties resulting in uncertainty to its performance. Pipe reeling also produces uncertainty with regards to burst, collapse, and fracture of the pipeline. Collapse in particular is directly linked with pipeline ovality, a result of the installation process. Despite all this it is fairly obvious that if plastic reeling strains were such a concern then we wouldnt be installing flowlines with them! The reality is that there is no reduction in performance provided that certain items are carefully considered during the design, procurement and fabrication processes. As an example, poor understanding can result in a greater pipe wall thicknesses, but with the reeling method now extremely well understood, to such an extent that there are detailed standards for it, there are nearly always relevant procedures to follow. Pipeline Ovalisation The method of rigid pipe reeling is such that the inducing of ovalisation to the pipe is inevitable. Ovalisation is the deformation of the pipe from a near perfect circle to an elliptical cross section due to plastic strain deformation. The challenge with such an installation method is maintaining an ovality that is within acceptable limits during the pipe lay. Ovalisation can be increased with bending and external overpressure and also decreased with bending and internal overpressure. It is a non-linear effect that greatly increases as the material reaches its elastic range. Ovality is strongly influenced by material properties such as rate of strain hardening, as well as the pipe diameter over thickness ratio, D/t and the reeling geometry configuration. Also of particular concern, is the relationship that a variation in material properties between pipes can bring, mostly over the required welded connections. The concept of ovalisation is not concerned with the materials yield stress itself but depends on the material yield anisotropy, that is the ratio of yield stress in the hoop to the axial direction. In order to ensure that the pipe does not collapse during installation, it is important to ensure ovality is kept within set parameters, as defined in the DNV-OS-F101 Offshore Standards. This is based around the characteristic resistance for external pressure collapse, pc and can be seen below in Equation 3.1. afab is the pipe material fabrication factor and is used for manufacturing processes that introduce cold deformations, giving different strength in compression and tension. The maximum value this can represent is a value of 1 for a seamless manufacturing process. This reduces to as low as 0.85 depending on the fabrication method used, for example the UOE bending, forming and welding process. The ovality value, fo is outputted as a percentage and from the DNV standards is not to exceed 3% in a reeling application. It is critical in the selection of wall thickness during design stages and must be of large enough value to take into account not only the expected ovality but localised peaks. Too large a fo value will result in a pipeline being of thicker wall thickness than required. When a pipe is bent plastically to a positive curvature (i.e. when spooling) and back again (coming off the reel), most ovalisation is recovered when the pipe is straightened. If too high an amount of ovalisation is still present however, then external forces in the form of rollers can encourage straightening, though this itself can be disadvantageous due to the potential to damage any linepipe coating. Ovalisation is disadvantageous for certain tasks that will be carried out throughout the pipelines lifespan, such as pigging and through flow line (TFL) tools. Pigging, a form of linepipe maintenance for cleaning and inspection, can be carried out without halting product flow by using the pressure of the flow to carry the pig from its launcher to its receiver. However as they are designed to fit snugly in a round pipe, excessive ovalisation would cause potential blockage or incompatibility. Moment Curvature Another aspect for consideration in order to gain a further in-depth understanding of the reel lay process is the relationship between moment and curvature during pipeline installation. The moment/curvature relationship is based round that of the pipes physical geometry, as well as the relationship of stress and strain in the material. An example of a moment/curvature diagram can be seen below in Figure 4. The pipeline is initially spooled onto the reel resulting in plastic deformation, and thus is taken past the material yield point (A) to the extent that the maximum installation curvature (B) is experienced by the pipe. This curvature will be dependant on the radius of the reel being utilised, with the radius increasing as pipe is overlapped. From its reeled state, the pipeline is transported to the lay destination for unspooling. It is unreeled to the pipeline aligner, a stage that due to the pipeline weight and applied back tension from the reel, results in reverse plastic deformation (C). With the pipe now resting between these two points, it sits visually straight in its span. Passing the pipe through the aligner of radius (E) and towards the straightener, bends it in the same direction to that is was initially spooled. The 3-point straightener itself exerts a further reverse plastic bend (F) on the pipe. Taking it slightly past its initial curvature results in it sitting physically straight on the seabed when all tension upon it is relaxed. The delivery state to the seabed location will correspond to the relevant standards as denoted in DNV-OS-F101. It is generally considered that the maximum moment to be sustained by the pipe during reeling will be around that of (B), with this moment being less than the plastic moment. This is due to the fact that at this point the bending behaviour of the pipe is stable and so buckle is unlikely to occur, with moment still increasing with curvature. The plastic moment at any point of the pipeline is a function of the pipes diameter, wall thickness and yield strength respectively, with the post yield strain hardening as well as the section ovalisation also playing a less extreme factor. One issue that tends to arise with pipeline reeling regarding moment and curvature occurs with the use of different pipe grades during production. When pipe is requested by a supplier, it is done so by grade. The supplier will create batches of pipe to the specified specification, but due to manufacture no two batches will be exactly alike i.e. some pipe will be weaker than others and vice versa. Despite all batches of pipe adhering to a minimum specification, the mismatched material specifications each react slightly differently during reeling, potentially resulting in high local curvatures and in extreme cases, local buckling. In the case of a pipeline being reeled, the moment required to spool a pipe onto the provided reel is provided by that of the following 12m section in line. Should this pipe be of weaker grade than the initial one, the potential that the moment will not be sufficiently supported arises, resulting in a localised increase in curvature, producing the greater pot ential for local buckling. D/t Ratio The pipe diameter over thickness ratio (D/t) is of high importance in pipe selection, being directly related to that of buckling. Typically, as the D/t ratio decreases the pipe can withstand a higher strain before buckling. However this comes at the expense of a large increase in ovality to the extent that it may go over desired limits, affecting such procedures as pigging of the pipeline. This can be seen below in Figure 5. Figure 5: Plot of Allowable Strain and Ovalisation at Allowable Strain As a further example to the relation to the D/t ratio to ovalisation, research carried out on pipe of API steel grade X65 gave the following results, as found in the following Table 1. Material Selection Material selection for pipelines is highly important for several different factors, and can determine the standards to follow and installation procedure. For a carbon steel for example, the requirements for a reeled pipeline are not that far removed from the requirements of national standards, but for other materials such as high strength pipe grades, careful review may be required. All materials require a certain level of constraints to be effective, with control typically needed on factors such as tensile ranges, maximum diameter to thickness ratio (D/t) and inner diameter (ID) tolerances. By working with suppliers who understand the installation process, a the chance of a suitable product is greatly increased. DNV standards dictate several basic requirements for pipe reeling. A maximum yield strength value of no greater than +100MPa of the Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS) is to be used, with a yield spread no greater than 100MPa. Wall thickness tolerance is considered to be dependant on the pipes actual wall thickness and a yield to tensile ratio of no greater than 0.90 is to be used. Strain aged testing of parent pipe material must also be carried out to the expected levels experienced during the reeling process. For the reeling of rigid pipeline, the choice of pipe material is strongly influenced by the manufacture method, both in terms of properties and geometry. Two main manufacturing methods exist, being submerged arc welded (SAW) and seamless (SMLS). SAW pipe is created by rolling a plate and welding the seam. It is a closely controlled method of fabrication offering tighter dimensional tolerances and better availability than seamless pipe. Seamless pipe involves the driving of a billet over a piercing rod, creating a hollow shell. This method typically offers better availability than welded pipe, at the expense of poorer tolerances in properties, in particular geometrically. Technip made an attempt to explore the variation of wall thickness in four 10km length pipelines of 6†, 10† and two 12† diameters, with stated wall thickness from 12.7 to 21.3mm. Measurements were taken at various points of each pipeline through their circumference, building up a broad cumulative distribution function for the thickness of each pipe. It was found that there was large variation in the wall thickness values throughout each pipe. Despite initial concerns, it was said to be almost impossible for a large to thin extreme of wall thickness to occur at a weld connection, due to the large variation of possible thicknesses in each pipe. It was concluded that the plastic moment capacity of seamless pipe was dominated primarily by the variation in average wall thickness through a pipes cross section. A highly exaggerated illustration of the deviance of each outside diameter (OD) for each type of pipe manufacture can be seen in the following Figure 6. The variation in OD of any pipe is closely related to ovality of the linepipe and can be obtained from additional analysis. An additional issue that tends to arise with pipeline reeling, regarding material selection, occurs with the use of different pipe grades during production. When pipe is requested by a supplier, it is done so by grade. When a grade is selected as being suitable for use, a supplier will ensure that the material supplied exceeds the grade, often level with the next grade up, in order to prevent rejection of the pipe due to it being under specification, which could cost them vast amounts of money. This results in welding issues as higher grade materials are more difficult to weld to standard, requiring overmatching (where the weld is stronger than the pipe itself) with the surrounding material. In order to prevent this, companies have been known for requesting material in the form of a YS/UTS ratio, yield strength over ultimate tensile strength, described in more detail below, keeping tighter control on what is produced. This comes at a disadvantage to suppliers due to the finer toleran ces involved. Reeling can also cause unacceptable strain hardening in certain materials, as well as large work hardening in higher grade steels. Strain hardening can be described as the increase in material resistance after previously exceeding its yield point from plastic strain. In ratio form it is YS/UTS, with lower ratio values indicating a greater material resistance after yield, and thus greater material stability under plastic deformation. A typical graph of strain hardening in a material can be seen below in Figure 7. The increase in material resistance can be seen from the positive slope produced. Work hardening, the increase in yield from repetitive straining is also of concern, but happens in fewer materials. Corrosion is an issue for pipelines in such areas as sour service. In areas such as hydrocarbon production pipelines, an inner liner, often of high-density polyethurene, is inserted as a form of corrosion prevention. This greatly enhances the life of the pipeline but issues have arisen with such a setup, including liner collapse. Liner collapse can occur when gas that is travelling through the liner becomes trapped between it and the outer pipe. During service this has little effect due to the pipeline operating pressure, but when the pipeline is depressurised, it can expand and collapse the liner. It has been shown that certain materials can experience increased resistance to fracture due to a growth in micro cavities and other such defects that can initiate ductile crack propagation. Due to the nature of the reeling method for pipeline installation this effect is given less attention however, instead aiming to reduce the chance of fracture via carefully selected material grade. This is due to the fact that reeling produces much smaller plastic strain levels than is ideal for the theory to work to great effect. Plastic Strain Effects On Materials And Welding The majority of load carrying structures in an engineering environment have cracks present in their construction, through either the linepipe material itself or the welding that was carried out through construction. It is more or less unheard of to have a pipeline with no defects at all, and it would be highly uneconomic to repair every flaw found. As such it is important to develop an acceptance criteria in order to establish defects that are acceptable and those that are not and have the potential to cause failure one that states a guaranteed fitness for purpose and integrity of the pipeline. Considering the two possible lay methods in terms of strain, that is plastic strain and elastic strain installation respectively, each has different assessment criteria to carry out. The standard procedures for elastic loading are not equal to plastic loading, being modified to suit. The severity of a flaw is dependant mostly on its size, location, loading and the material properties. As an example, installation methods involving significant plastic strain normally require high toughness materials in order to allow acceptance of realistic flaw sizes in the girth welds. An acceptance criteria must be carefully considered to ensure that it is not over cautious. It must be ensured that no unnecessary work is carried out with regards to weld repair, inspection and pre-weld treatments, and that no weld methods, materials or design are wrongly disqualified throughout the process. The industry as a whole accepts that flaws in structures are acceptable as long as they are accounted for and cannot cause failure. Modern pipeline design is based on a limit state design, with each failure mode designed for independently. One of the main failure modes in rigid pipelines for reeling is the fracture of girth welds. For girth welds, it is important to ensure that the strength and fracture toughness are well optimised, as this will help to prevent any present flaws from extending and thus affecting the overall pipeline integrity. It needs to be demonstrated that the pipeline has adequate resistance against crack extension by tearing and unstable fracture during its installation, as well as operation. This is done via an Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA), which was devised in order to help determine acceptable flaw sizes in girth welds. Recommended Practice For Flaw Control The standards by the DNV give a Recommended Practice to be used for cyclic plastic deformation as found in rigid pipe reeling. The Practice is made up of 3 key elements, namely a procedure for fracture resistance testing, an Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) procedure and finally a validation testing procedure. Each of the three stages is expanded on below. The purpose of the initial element of the procedure is to characterise the pipe materials fracture resistance as well as the fracture resistance of the girth welds. This is done to help determine acceptable flaw sizes in the pipeline. There are two ways of carrying out such analysis according to the utilised BSI BS 7448, namely via the use of either a SENT (Single Edged Notched Tension) or a SENB (Single Edged Notched Bend) specimens. Due to the loading characteristics of reeling, the SENT specimen is the most frequently utilised, as it is considered to be the more representative of the two with regards to the crack tip constraint of girth weld flaws. Use of the SENB specimen results in conservative results. With regards to cyclic loading effects regarding fracture resistance, research carried out by both TWI and DNV has shown, through both small and large scale testing, that cyclic loading does little to affect the fracture resistance of both the pipe material and its welds. Due to this, the DNV standards recommend that the fracture resistance values are determined for later ECA analysis through the use of one-directional monotonic testing of the SENT specimens, before later being verified by small scale testing of Segment specimens, used to resemble conditions of a girth weld during linepipe installation. Characterise The Pipe Materials Fracture Resistance To begin with, monotonic testing of the SENT specimens was carried out, in order to characterise the materials fracture resistance values by J-R (or CTOD-R) curves. For this application the BS 7448 standard is followed, with exception to the use of the SENT specimen in order to account for obtaining a loading mode and thus crack tip constraint similar to that of a pipe circumferential surface or embedded flaw. No set standard is currently available for this configuration of SENT testing. The typical SENT specimen, as seen above in Figure 8, is of recommended dimensions B = 2W and contains a surface notch that is used to represent the relevant orientation for defects in girth welds. The aim of this testing stage is to evaluate results for all possible defect locations on a reeled rigid pipeline. The sample is to be either clamped in position or pin loaded for testing, with both methods being deemed acceptable for comparison of flaws in pipe girth welds. A minimum of 6 specimens will be tested, with each loaded to a tearing length of anything from 0.2mm to 3mm, in order to obtain an accurate J-R or CTOD-R curve. It must be ensured that no brittle fracture occurs before attainment of the expected maximum load value, or that of a stable crack extension of at least 1.5 mm, for the results to be effective. Testing is done at the lowest predicted install temperature the pipeline will foresee, with consideration also made for install temperatures of over 50 °c due to the p ossibility of a reduced stable crack tearing resistance. The J-integral is obtained from the relationship where Je represents the elastic area of the J-integral and Jp the plastic respectively. Perform An Engineering Criticality Assessment (ECA) The second stage of the procedure is based around an ECA assessment. An ECA assessment is used in order to help determine acceptable flaw sizes that will not cause failure during linepipe installation and later operation. It can be broken down into 3 basic stages, those being material properties, flaw data and material stresses. Having any two of the three available allows the third to be found, but the most common method utilised is establishing the maximum tolerable flaw size from material properties and applied stress information. In 2007, the DNV-OS-F101 standards had an Appendix A added, based on the BSI BS 7910 standards, in an attempt to clarify all existing information relating to ECA calculations. The previously found fracture properties, established from testing of SENT specimens, are used to ensure that no weld flaws will cause failure during installation. Failure itself is defined as a preset crack extension and final crack size being exceeded, as well as the occurrence of plastic collapse and unstable fracture. The crack size definitions are mostly recommended for study in the installation phase, giving desirable information on flaw size after installation, that itself being during the pipeline operation. The ECA assessment itself is described in the BSI BS 7910 level 3 tearing instability analysis, but for the purpose of pipe reeling is modified to suit. The method is fairly in-depth, but a summery will be given to illustrate what is involved. The initial requirement is to adjust the found stress/strain and curve data from the SENT in order to help create a Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD), used to help distinguish between acceptable results and those that would cause possible failure. This is done by plotting both brittle fracture Kr against plastic collapse Lr. A cutoff value for plastic deformation must be found, as the FAD cannot account for arbitrary large plastic deformations. An example FAD diagram can be seen below in Figure 9. Figure 9: Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) It is also required to calculate the actual stress and strain concentration of the pipeline. The act

Food Safety for the Home Environment

Food Safety for the Home Environment Milena Marcinek Part 1: Handling food This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 1: Know the importance of handling food safely Learning objective Place in Assessment Explain why it is important to handle food safely Question 1 Page 1 1.2 Identify hazards relating to food safety Question 2 Page 2 1.3 Identify ways in which food should be handled safely to avoid contamination during the following operations: Storage Preparation Cooking Serving Re-heating Question 3, Page 2 1. Explain why it is important to handle food safely. [1.1] Safe food handling prevents food from being contaminated. It is highly important to preven food contamination as contaminated food can cause not only heachache or atomach pain but also can lead to severe health problems such a kidney failure and even death. If people who are responsible for handling the food do not take enough care for safe food handling they might put peoples health at risk. 2. What are the key hazards to be aware of when it comes to food safety? Identify at least three examples in your answer. [1.2] Bacterial Hazard: Over time food can be subject to a range of changes caused by micro- organisms such as bacteria, fmould, yeast, viruses. As a result the color, taste texture can be affected. Some of the changes look unpleasant bu they do not have to be dangerous for humans life although some forms of bacterial contamination, caused by pathogenic bacteria, causes the food to become inedible or a potential hazard to health. Foreign Bodies: The food may be contaminated by the foreign body even before the food is reacheing the home. Examples of foreign body: I pieces of metal, wood, plastic and food packaging, II bones, shells, pips, stalks and stones. III hairs, jewellery, plasters, nails, saliva Allergic Hazard The most common food that cause alergic reaction are milk, soya, nuts, seafood. Even just a tiny bit of certain food can cause severe reaction. Food allergic can lead to anaphylaxis. Sufferers can experience swelling of the throat, breathing problems and potential collapse. Food labels have to always inform if the food might have any conatct with any of food that can cause allergic reaction. Chemical Hazard 3. Complete the table below by identifying how food should be handled in order to avoid contamination during each of the operations listed: [1.3] Operation How food should be handled Storage Every type of food has an ideal storage condions. If food is storaged in a wrong way the food can quickly become inedible or unusasble. Preparation Keep the highest hygine standart at the place where food is being brepared. The perosn who prepares the food should fallow the highest hygene standarts. Cooking Food should be cooked throughly to avaoid bacterial contamination. If the temeperature of cooking is not high enough then bacteria may survive and people eating undercooked food risks becoming ill. Serving It is important to ensure that hot food dont go cold, persihable foods are not left in room temperature for longer than two hours and people do not make contact with food they do not intend to eat. Re-heating Food shouldnt be re-heated more then one time. Re-heated food must be minimum 75 degrees C. To check the temeperature of food an appropriate thermometer should be used. Take particular care when feeding pre-heated food to vulnerable people. For food such as soups be sure to stir them so the whole foodstuff is at required temperature. Now that you have completed Part 1 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 2: Personal hygiene This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 2: Know the importance of personal hygiene when handling food Learning objective Place in Assessment 2.1 Explain ways of maintaining personal hygiene when handling food that helps reduce the risk of contamination Question 1 Page 3 2.2 Identify how and when to wash hands Question 2a Page 4 Question 2b Page 5 2.3 Describe potential problems resulting from not maintaining personal hygiene when handling food Question 3 Page 5 1. Explain three ways of maintaining personal hygiene when handling food. Also provide a brief explanation as to how these efforts can reduce the risk of contamination. [2.1] a) People should avoid touching or combing their hair while handling with food as hairs can physically contaminate the food. In commercial enviroment food handlers have to cover their hair with a hair net or other form of covering. These efforts reduce risks of getting hairs into food what is not only not pleasant but olso have a potential to be harmfull to death. b) People should take off jewellery while they handle the food. Jewellery can harbour bacteria and dirt and also brings a risk of phissical conatmination c) People should ensure their nails are short and tidy while they handle food. The food handler shouldnt use nail varnish or fake nails that can drop of. Following this rules reduces risks of physical conatmination ( bits of nails, varnish, dirt undar nail, or pieces of fake nails can conataminate the food ) 2a. Read the case study below describing a typical day for Chris. Afterwards, identify three situations where he should have washed his hands. [2.2] Chris works in a sandwich shop every weekday from 9am to 6pm. He gets up and out of bed at 7 and jumps into the shower straight away. Once dressed, he heads downstairs for breakfast. Today, he’s decided to have his favourite; bacon sandwiches. He puts the bacon into the sizzling hot pan and waits until it is brown and crispy. He also chops up some fresh tomatoes from the fridge before putting together his meal. He is running late so takes his sandwich with him to the bus stop. He needs to finish it quickly to pay for his ticket and hold on to the side bar because the journey is unusually bumpy and busy. When he arrives at work, Chris puts on a plastic apron and gloves immediately and positions himself behind the counter awaiting his first morning customers. By lunchtime, Chris has put together 34 sandwiches and he sets about making the total 35 by preparing his own. Once he has made his lunch, Chris removes his gloves and apron and sits himself in the staff room, ready to rewa rd his hard work. Between mouthfuls, he decides to make a cup of tea so wanders over to turn the kettle on and get a spare mug from the cupboard. He sits himself back down until the kettle has boiled which conveniently coincides with his final bite. He places his plate in the dishwasher, makes his tea and prepares to head back to his second shift. After returning home from work, Chris quickly uses the bathroom before beginning to prepare his dinner. He takes some chicken from the fridge and cuts it into cubes for a stir fry. Whilst doing so, his phone rings so he runs to answer it. It’s his mum, so he finds comfy place to sit down as he expects it will be a long chat! Your answer: a) before touching bacon, after touching bacon and before cutting tomatoes b) When arriving to work befor he starts making sandwiches and before coming back to work after the break c) Before cutting the chicken 2b. Prepare some simple instructions that could be used to explain the correct technique for hand washing. [2.2] use warm water and good amount of soap rub palm to palm rub backs of both hands rub palm to palm with fingers interlaced rub backs of fingers ( interlocked) rub each thumb clasped I nopposite hand using a rotation movement rub both palms with fingertips dry torhoughly in clean paper towel or use hand dryer 3. Describe three potential problems that can result from not maintaining personal hygiene when handling food. [2.3] a) foreign object conatmination If people who deal with handling the food dont keep high hygene standarts as covering their hair, wearing appropriate clothes, keeping nails clean and tidy or they wear jewellery while they handle any food they might contaminate food with foreign objcect such as for example : hairs, pieces of jewellery, pieces of nails or clothes. b) Food poisoning bacteria Lack of personal hygiene can result in food poiosning bacteria. To avoid it people handling the food should remember to wash their hands, keep the kitchen area clean, not to store rice at room temeperature for sustained period, carefool cook and cool the food, wash thoroughly the meat, fish and vegetable, not to use damaged cans, preserve food carefully, keep raw and cooked food separately, keep food at safe temeperature, keep animals away from food, avoid coughing and sneezing on food, cover cuts, pay attention to use by dates. c) Foodborn disease Foodborne illness is caused by consuming contaminated foods or beverages. Many different disease-causing microbes or pathogens can contaminate foods, so there are many different types of foodborne illnesses. Most foodborne diseases are infections caused by a variety of bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Other diseases are poisonings caused by harmful toxins or chemicals that have contaminated food. Of note many foodborne pathogens also can be acquired through recreational or drinking water, from contact with animals or their environment, or through person-to-person spread. Here are a few dos and donts to prevent food borne illness: *Dont leave foods that need to be chilled sitting out. Refrigerate and freeze necessary foods right away. *Do use a meat thermometer to make sure your food is cooked thoroughly. *Do wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with warm, soapy water before and after handling any raw meats, fruits and vegetables. *Do wash utensils and disinfect surfaces before and after use. *Dont defrost food on the kitchen counter. Instead, use the refrigerator, cold running water, or the microwave oven. *Dont let food marinate at room temperature. *Keep marinating food refrigerated. *Dont over pack the refrigerator. Now that you have completed Part 2 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 3: Storing food This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 3: Know how to store food safely Learning objective Place in Assessment 3.1 Explain how to store the following types of food correctly to avoid contamination: Fresh Convenience High risk Low risk Question 1 Page 6 3.2 Explain why it is important to follow food storage instructions Question 2 Page 7 1. In the table below, explain the correct way to store the different food types in order to avoid contamination: [3.1] Food type Storage method Fresh Raw meat, fish and poultry should be stored in the bottom of a fridge below ready to eat food. Fresh salad vegetables should be stored in lided boxes in a fridge to prevent it from being contaminated by drips from raw food. Convenience Convenience food should have a label saying what is its best storage method. High risk High risk food should be keeped in low temeperature enviroment such as refrigerator and only for short duration outside of that. Low risk Can be stored in dry, cool, dry area , ideally in the shade. 2. In 50 words or less, explain why it is important to follow food storage instructions. [3.2] IT is importarnt to follow food storage instruction to be sure that the food is being kept in right condition and to prevent food spoiling to quickly and to reduce risk of food poisoning. Now that you have completed Part 3 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 4: Importance of correct food storage This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 4: Know how food storage can affect the nutritional value of food Learning objective Place in Assessment 4.1 Outline how storage methods can affect the nutritional value of food Question 1 Page 8 Outline in 50 words or less, how storage methods can affect the nutritional value of food. [4.1] Nutrition in food is prone to change with time. Exposure to light, temeperature, water or oxygen can cause all sorts of reactions in food what effects in nutritional changes of the food. Now that you have completed Part 4 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 5: Keeping the food work area clean This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 5: Know how to keep the food work area clean Learning objective Place in Assessment 5.1 Describe why it is important to keep the food work area clean, hygienic and disinfected Question 1 Page 9 5.2 Outline ways of keeping the food work area clean, hygienic and disinfected Question 2 Page 9 1. Describe why it is important to keep the food work area clean, hygienic and disinfected. [5.1] Keeping the food work area clean, hygenic and disinfected eliminates bacteria growth, reduces bacteria to safe level, creates the inviroment that is uinattractive to pests and verim, minimises the possibility of cross conatmination, results in a clean and safe enviroment for the people who are preparing the food. 2. Outline three actions that you can take in order to keep the food work area clean, hygienic and disinfected. [5.2] a) To avoid cross conatamination you can restrict some food preparation and cooking tasks to specific part of the kitchen. Yo can also have dedictaed equipment for certain tasks, such as colour coded chopiing boards. b) Disinfect food contact surfaces, hand contact surfaces as well as equipment used to clean the kitchen to avoid cross contamination . c) Clean the kitchen area systematically and implement kitchen cleaning scheadule. Now that you have completed Part 5 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 6: Checking food is cooked to the correct temperature This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 6: Know how to check food is cooked to the correct temperature Learning objective Place in Assessment 6.1 Describe why it is important to ensure that food is cooked to the correct temperature Question 1 Page 10 6.2 Give examples of ways to check food is cooked to the correct temperature Question 2 Page 10 1. Describe why it is important to ensure that food is cooked to the correct temperature. [6.1] Bacteria multiply in the temperature between 5 and degrees 65 Celcius. Baceria are killed in the temeperature above 75 degrees Celcius so it is important to check the food is cooked all the way through to be sure there is no threat to peoples health. 2. Give two examples of how you can check that food is cooked to the correct temperature. [6.2] Example 1: U can use food thermometer to check if the food is cooked in a correct way. Example 2: Yo can also see if food is piping hot and steam is visible before the food is served. Now that you have completed Part 6 of your Assessment, remember to save the work you have done so far – you will need to send your work to your tutor for marking once you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment. Part 7: Disposing of food waste This part will help you to evidence Learning Outcome 7: Know how to dispose of food waste safely Learning objective Place in Assessment 7.1 Describe why it is important to dispose of food waste safely Question 1 Page 11 7.2 Outline how to dispose of food waste safely Question 2 Page 11 1. Describe why it is important to dispose of food waste safely. [7.1] It is important to dispose of food waste safetly to avoid cross contamination- when the food is no longer going to be consumed it should be thrown away straight away. If we leave the unwanted food at home it can be a place where bacteria are able to thrive. Bacteria van be spread to other food that still can be consumed what causes a risk for humans health. It is also important to dispose of food waste in a safe way to avoid pests at home. 2. Outline two ways in which you can dispose of food safely. [7. 2] a) Do not left food waste undercovered before throwing it away. Waste needs to be disposed of immediately b) Clean with water food containers and food packaging. This removes small bits of food that can facilitate bacteria growth. Now that you have completed all 7 Parts of this Assessment, go to www.vision2learn.com. Log in to the platform and send your Assessment to your tutor via your My Study page for marking. Good luck! Â © Creating Careers Ltd, 2015. All rights reserved.Page 1 of 16

Absurdity in Albert Camus’ The Stranger Essay -- The Outsider Essays

The word "absurd" or "absurdity" is very peculiar in that there is no clear definition for the term. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary gave its definition of "absurd" as "having no rational or orderly relationship to human life: meaningless, also: lacking order or value." Many existential philosophers have defined it in their own manner. Soren Kierkegarrd, a pre-World War II German philosopher, defined absurd as "that quality of Christian faith which runs counter to all reasonable human expectation" (Woelfel 40). Jean-Paul Sartre a post-WW II French philosopher, felt that absurd was "the sheer contingency or ‘thereness’ or gratuitousness of the world" (Woelfel 41). Both of these definitions are hard to interpret and for the most part are not how Camus viewed the word absurd. Camus gives his interpretation of absurd in his book The Myth of Sisyphus, which is the point at which man realizes that all the struggles that we put forth in a repeated daily cycle are in all actuality completely meaningless (Woelfel 44). In James W. Woelfel’s book, Camus: A Theological Perspective, he gives us Camus point of absurdity in detail, I have said that the world is not absurd. Neither is man the strange animal absurd. What is then? The absurd, Camus says, is precisely the relationship between man, who demands ultimate rationality, and his irrational world: the "confrontation between the human need and the unreasonable silence of the world" (Camus, Myth 21). †¦ man experiences himself as other than his natural environment and as wanting more than it can yield†¦nature has produced a being with needs it cannot fulfill. The juxtaposition of the human need for ultimate meaning with the ultimate lack of meaning yielded by the universe is the a... ...tranger.’† Storybites.com. Storybites, 2011. Web. 26 August 2015. "Absurd."   Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary.   http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Web. 26 August 2015. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/absurd Braun, Lev.   Albert Camus:   Moralist of the Absurd.   Cranbury: Associated UP, 1974. Camus, Albert.   The Myth of Sisyphus.   Trans. Justin O'Brien.   New York: Vintage, 1955. ---.   The Stranger.   Trans. Matthew Ward.   New York: Vintage, 1988. Ellison, David R.   Understanding Albert Camus.   Columbia: U of South Carolina P, 1990. Masters, Brian.   Camus: A Study.   London: Heinemann, 1974. McCarthy, Patrick.   Camus: The Stranger.   Cambridge UP, 1988. Todd, Oliver.   Albert Camus: A Life.   Trans. Benjamin Ivry.   New York: Knopf, 1997. Woelfel, James W.   Camus: A Theological Perspective.   New York: Abingdon, 1975.   

Environmental Management Essay -- Environment, Forest Officials, Poli

The role of the State is still crucial to twenty-first century environmental policy making. The State through its various different organizations is involved in implementing policies related to the direct and active manipulation of the environment (Wilson, 1997). The State devises a set of rules governing the access and withdrawals of the resource stock (Grafton, 2000). For example, forest officials, such as the Forestry Commission in the United Kingdom directly manages and exploits state owned forests. The State’s indirect environmental management policy role is often considered the most important. The distinctive feature of the State is that it has control through coercion in a given territory. Through the perspective of environmental management policies, this is important as the State is lawfully in a -position to force non-State environmental managers in the pursuit of its own policy and environmental outlook (Wilson, 1997). State policies designed to regulate logging on p rivate and publicly owned land are enforced through legal acts and contravention of these regulations could lead to prosecution. These official policies require non-State environmental managers to alter their practices in line with rules set by the state (Wilson, 1997; UK Forestry Standard, 2011). Therefore, State environmental management policies are designed to control the environmental management practices of other groups associated with taking from and adding to the environment. The uniqueness of the State’s policy making role is that it holds great responsibility for the promotion of the common good for all within the national territory and has the authority to fulfil this. Consequently the State plays an enormous role in environmental policy making. Alt... ...nge. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity are both environmental regimes established under the auspices of the United Nations. Agreements such as these provide a criterion for positive environmental action whereas their related protocols outline specific ways to address particular features of the overall environmental problem. Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol assigns emission reduction targets to States, aiming to reduce global warming. The internationalism of environmental management is predominantly constructed upon the commitment, negotiations and agreements between individual States. This new structure of environmental management reflects the growth of a global civil society and has mobilised States at the international level. Environmental Management Essay -- Environment, Forest Officials, Poli The role of the State is still crucial to twenty-first century environmental policy making. The State through its various different organizations is involved in implementing policies related to the direct and active manipulation of the environment (Wilson, 1997). The State devises a set of rules governing the access and withdrawals of the resource stock (Grafton, 2000). For example, forest officials, such as the Forestry Commission in the United Kingdom directly manages and exploits state owned forests. The State’s indirect environmental management policy role is often considered the most important. The distinctive feature of the State is that it has control through coercion in a given territory. Through the perspective of environmental management policies, this is important as the State is lawfully in a -position to force non-State environmental managers in the pursuit of its own policy and environmental outlook (Wilson, 1997). State policies designed to regulate logging on p rivate and publicly owned land are enforced through legal acts and contravention of these regulations could lead to prosecution. These official policies require non-State environmental managers to alter their practices in line with rules set by the state (Wilson, 1997; UK Forestry Standard, 2011). Therefore, State environmental management policies are designed to control the environmental management practices of other groups associated with taking from and adding to the environment. The uniqueness of the State’s policy making role is that it holds great responsibility for the promotion of the common good for all within the national territory and has the authority to fulfil this. Consequently the State plays an enormous role in environmental policy making. Alt... ...nge. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity are both environmental regimes established under the auspices of the United Nations. Agreements such as these provide a criterion for positive environmental action whereas their related protocols outline specific ways to address particular features of the overall environmental problem. Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol assigns emission reduction targets to States, aiming to reduce global warming. The internationalism of environmental management is predominantly constructed upon the commitment, negotiations and agreements between individual States. This new structure of environmental management reflects the growth of a global civil society and has mobilised States at the international level.

African American Musuem

Intro to Museum Studies Professor Kirsch September 19,2010 The African Museum in Philadelphia is notable as the first museum funded and built by a municipality to help preserve, interpret and exhibit the heritage of African Americans. Opened during the 1976 Bicentennial celebrations, the AAMP is located in historic Philadelphia, a few blocks away from the Liberty Bell. Charles H. Wesley was a noted African American historian, educator, and author.He was the fourth African American to receive a Ph. D. from Harvard University. An ordained minister, Wesley’s distinguished career included 40 years of leadership with the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1976, he served as Director of the Afro-American Historical and Cultural Museum in Philadelphia, now known as the African American Museum in Philadelphia. Programs The African American Museum that is located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania has some interesting education programs.These education programs focus on arts, culture, a nd heritage education. They place a major emphasis on the interests of the students, educators, artists, historians, scholars, and community organizations. These programs offer diversity with scheduling. The programs explore various African forms of cultural expressions. In these programs there are literary performances, hands on demonstrations, workshops, and storytelling performances as well.The African American Museum in Philadelphia feels its programs can be a vital link between the permanent and visiting collections for the many communities they serve. Exhibitions The exhibitions in the African American Museum in Philadelphia can some to be pleasing to the eye and stimulating to the mind. According to the African American Museum of Philadelphia these exhibitions invoke a deep collection of emotion ranging from pride and passion to excitement and enthusiasm.When visitors enter the museum they will come to Gallery 1, which includes a interactive timeline, images draw from histori cal record, that spans 100 years of history. In Gallery 2 there are full size video projections in which visitors can in engage in them. Once they are activated, a monologue about life in Philadelphia will begin. Some other aspects of the exhibit include an experience where you can walk the streets of Philadelphia through a large scale map, which is located between galleries 1 and 2 .

Media and Communication Theory

In the 21st Century Media technology and Telecommunication Technology has undergone tremendous changes in its technological advancement. In the 1990’s this technological innovation has given birth to the World Wide Web and the Internet technology.Many writers in this field in many theoretical perspectives have analyzed the impact of media technology on society. In this essay I will discuss the theory of â€Å"technological determinism and its inevitability† using primarily the theoretical and historical evaluation of Media technology on society advocated by Burnett & P. David Marshall in their book â€Å"Web Theory: An Introduction†. In addition I will also use examples of Radio and Television on Western Society and the forces, which shaped the Medias impact on Society values and culture and, way of life as well as how it supplemented or whether it replaced the earlier Media technologies such as Television, radio, News papers and print technologies.Brief history of InternetThe origins of Internet are in the Military Institutions of USA. It was an incidental development to gather  Security information and assimilations within the defense bureaucracy. It was in the public domain as government was involved in its early development. Later the Universities recognized its potential to share information within the universities and they adopted this technology for their research work.As a result of this process the bulletin boards appeared first for science fiction and then for personal and other reasons by many user groups who had common interest. After the Internet was commercialized and independent service providers entered the market and e-commerce was introduced by the private sector and the control of web past from the public sector to the private sector. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, pp: 11-12)Definition of the theory of â€Å"technological determinism and inevitabilityThe theory of technological determinism can be defined as the major influence of the dominant technology to have a major impact on society and its inevitability and its transformation power and the replacement of older technologies and social practices. It assumes that people react to technology and economic, social, institutional and political factors is not that important and the major force can be reduced to technology as a major change agent for the societies advancement and enlightenment. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003. pp: 10-11)Origins of the theory of â€Å"technological determinism and inevitabilityThe origins of the theory were due to several writers who promoted this theory as well as powerful people in politics and in Commerce promoted it. These writers attributed just like other media technologies the Internet also will have a revolutionary impact on society. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, pp: 7-8)The ideology of technology and its effectsThe ideology of technology means is a representation is completely normal and natural for the culture as well asappropriate.   That is the new technology not only natural and normal bur also what is needed to make the society better. It reduces the debate to a functional level rather than public debate and becomes a cultural reality in every day lives and we accept new technology passively. It promotes that we cannot be happy without the latest model of technological equipment or model. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, p: 9)Evaluation of Technological determinism based on Web TheoryAs discussed above from the brief history of the Internet and noticing other factors has also played a part in the evolution of the Internet such as institutional and social patterns it is obvious that new technology alone may not bring about a revolutionary change in society.   As well if this theory stifles public debate it may not produce positive outcomes and can be detriment for societies progress.   In addition it does not take in to account social, economic Institutional and political factors as important and it may oversimplify how technology impacts society and gives in appropriate weight for technology as a major factor for social betterment.However some writers of technical determinists have shed some light on the actual development of web technology, which in itself can be a major social change factor in limited situations.   They are H.A. Innis, Marshall McLuhan, Lewis Mumford (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, P: 12).   According to H. A InnisA dominant communication medium can be time-based or space based. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, P: 13) According to him time- based communication system will produce a close society and a space based communication medium will produce a more open society. (, Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall 2003, P: 13) Web technology is an active play with space and time and its diffused and web does not have a center however as it originates in America on the other hand it may create a centralizing model of communication. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, P: 14-15).Another interesting question. which arises from Inns insight is how the space is defined through the web? Does the control of virtual space control the geographical space? (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall 2003, P: 15) The virtual space is discontinuous with the material world of countries and geopolitics. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall 2003, P: 15) However there may be new divides acrossEvaluation of Technological determinism based on Web Theory  geographical boundaries in the virtual world grouping activities and interests which may relate to power groups that may be not coordinated with the interests of empires if multinational companies do not control the cyberspace. If they control the cyberspace then it will have repercussions in the international geopolitics of work, economy and culture. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall 2003, P: 15)In the perspective of Marshall McLu han he theorizes technology as a medium. In the Web Theory of Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall they highlight the utility of seeing web as a medium rather than its content because it points in the right direction how a technology incorporates other technologies in the early stages and evolves on a long-term basis rather than replacing past technologies as web uses voice, text, visual and graphics to convey messages and linked with other networks and similar sites.(Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall. 2003 p: 17) In addition McLuhan saw the expansion of television and other communication technology internationally he came with an idea of global village. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall. 2003 p: 18). According to Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall this idea of global village in respect of television internationally a least for 80 years in their view television as a media technology has been a major force for the culmination of nation state and nationalistic cultures as well they concl uded in some circumstances the television and other media technologies can have similarities for example the death of Kennedy televised across the world may have produced a kind of global village.However they rejected that these events did not produce sense of community like a village, which depended on interpersonal knowledge to make sense of the world. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall. 2003 p: 18)Evaluation of Technological determinism based on Web TheoryMcLuhan also has theorized technology can produce electronic collective consciousness. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall. 2003, p: 19). In the view of Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall this idea is utopian however they concluded that in smaller ways web technology can produce collective consciousness because of its nature and accessibility to information learning in schools and beyond has become to retrieve information and transform in to knowledge and action rather than route learning and memorization in western societies befo re advent of the web. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall. 2003, p: 19).As well Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall point in page 20 that technology can shape our behavior in particular ways so that we often become unified with the technology and give examples of driving a car and it has to become automatic to drive the car with confidence.According to Mumford technology has become out-of control and poised to ask question whether web has become out-of-control and a channel for further centralization of power or web is an extension of general human interest and democratizing knowledge and power? As well on an individual level one can ask the question does the web intuitively an extension of self in to kind of collective network of knowledge or information or the individual is absorbed in to the web technology which produces technological rationality that does not allow the individual to examine the system the individual is using.(Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, p: 20). Accordi ng to Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall these questions are complex and there is no simple answer and it depends on the web culture and the kind of information and knowledge it generates. (Robert Burnett, P. David Marshall, 2003, p: 20).Examples of existence of Radio and Television in the advent of web TechnologyIn the western world even in the era of web technology some groups get news and other information as a medium as opposed to web technology because of its appropriateness to some groups and in some contexts. For example if say a politician wants to convey a message then Television and radio is preferable to web technology as web technology is not accessible to may people and it has to have some interaction than the other medium and web technology is diffused than has a central point. That is the older technologies have their niche markets even in the advent of web technology and web technology supplements the other older technologies and they don’t replace overnight th ese technologies but in an evolutionary manner they enter in to our lives. The technology in itself has an impact on society.However as envisaged by the technological determinist theorists the dominant technology does not change in a revolutionary manner the society and other factors such as economic, Institutional, social patterns and cultural factors shape the use of technology and they play a part in shaping the society as a whole. In addition all previous technologies loose their transformation power after some time. For example Radio when invented promised a kind of utopian future for human knowledge, education and enhancement and change society in a revolutionary manner but radio did not realize this vision as envisaged by many technological determinist writers and powerful leaders at that time. It applies to Television as well.In addition news papers and libraries still exist side by side with web technology but they use web technologyTo advertise their services and to delive r services efficiently and expand markets as web technology is more spatial than the other technologies.ConclusionAs discussed above technology definitely to some extent shape our lives. However it does not shape our life in a revolutionary manner as proposed by the technological determinist theorists. Other factors play a part in shaping the technology itself and social, Institutional, political and cultural factors affect societies development and progress as well. In addition the new media technology as discussed above do not replace it but supplements and converge. It is also from the above discussion some theoretical insights in a limited manner applies to web technology as well in terms of its collective consciousness in some contexts and seeing web as a medium and the human-technological interface as theorized by some technological determinist theorists.In my view the Technological determinist theory is applicable in some circumstances and context but it is not applicable to web technology or any other technology that technology itself will transform society. However web technology compared to older technology has a potential to be in our day-to-day life in a long-term trajectory because of its versatility and its special communication medium.BibliographyRobert Burnett, P. David Marshall, (2003) Web Theory: An Introduction, Chapter 1: Web Technology, London & NY: Routledge, pp7-22